After the division between India and Pakistan, the latter are left with the vast and complex series of archaeological documents of the Indian subcontinent, especially those referring to the prehistoric and protohistoric age and to that which elapses between the expansion of the Indian kingdoms and the end of the kuṣāṇa empire in which the art of Gandhāra takes place.
The oldest traces of human settlement in Pakistan have come to light from a hill a few km south of Quetta, in the locality of Kile Gul Muhammad. The deeper levels have preserved adobe houses from which numerous stone objects come, but so far no pottery fragments. In Rana Ghundai, in northern Belūcistān, the exploration of a mound about 35 meters high allowed the identification, in the deeper levels, of a settlement, devoid of correlation with the houses, but documented by a very abundant rough pottery, not painted, and animal bones, among which four horse’s teeth stand out, quite exceptionally. We know very little, up to now and in such an ancient period, about the north of the Indus valley and those of its tributaries. A precious datum can be offered by the findings made by the Italian archaeological mission in Swāt, at Gogdara, where a rock wall was discovered with graffiti representing animals, alone or yoked to the cart, of a very ancient type, but of which it cannot yet be given an absolute chronology, connected with ceramic or structural finds, as the level of occupation corresponding to the age in which the graffiti was carried out was not reached. The “ductus” finds surprising comparisons with the decoration of the figured pottery of Rana Ghundai and with some of the seals of Mohenjo Daro. but of which an absolute chronology cannot yet be given, connected with ceramic or structural findings since the level of occupation corresponding to the age in which the graffiti was carried out was not reached. The “ductus” finds surprising comparisons with the decoration of the figured pottery of Rana Ghundai and with some of the seals of Mohenjo Daro. but of which an absolute chronology cannot yet be given, connected with ceramic or structural findings since the level of occupation corresponding to the age in which the graffiti was carried out was not reached. The “ductus” finds surprising comparisons with the decoration of the figured pottery of Rana Ghundai and with some of the seals of Mohenjo Daro. For Pakistan 1999, please check estatelearning.com.
In the lower Indus valley by far the most important finds for a very ancient period are the very recent excavations of Kot Diji, conducted by the Archaeological Department of Pakistan, not far from the modern city of Khairpur. Here, in fact, below the layers referable to the Harappā culture, the remains of an older settlement have come to light, with a city and an acropolis surrounded by stone walls, inside which are houses built with raw bricks. Typical is the high quality ceramics with polychrome decoration in zones that can be combined with specimens of the Mediterranean area while it differs from those of Belūcistān and eastern Iran. An absolute chronological clarification of these most ancient manifestations of life is difficult; up to now, comparisons have been based on material from excavations in western Asia with the uncertainties and methodological reservations that derive from it. The data obtained with the Carbon 14 method in the few cases in which it has been applied are relatively low: a date around 3300, with an approximation of about 500 years, for the preceramic layers of Kile Gul Muhammad. Consequently, the testimony of life in very ancient times, at least corresponding to phases already evolved in the Mediterranean area and western Asia, should be excluded so far. with approximation of about 500 years, for the preceramic strata of Kile Gul Muhammad. Consequently, the testimony of life in very ancient times, at least corresponding to phases already evolved in the Mediterranean area and western Asia, should be excluded so far. with approximation of about 500 years, for the preceramic strata of Kile Gul Muhammad. Consequently, the testimony of life in very ancient times, at least corresponding to phases already evolved in the Mediterranean area and western Asia, should be excluded so far.
These data, relating to the most ancient human settlements, are followed by those that document the flourishing of a high civilization in the Indus valley between the fourth and third millennium, of which we can also grasp the reflections in the sphere of political organization and social, thanks to the abundance and value of the finds; our acquaintances, alongside minor localities, are above all linked to the two major cities: Mohenjo Daro and Harappā. The deeper layers have offered inconclusive data, which are now replaced by those of Kot Diji, while the levels in which a large city system develops are very clear. The layout is orthogonal and the major buildings stand out with their characteristic elongated rectangular warehouses, which are compared to the Mesopotamian palaces. The finds of this type extend over a rather vast area, so much so that the term “Indus Valley civilization” is improper and can more rightly be replaced with that of Harappā culture; however, the unity is such that one can think of a single state with two capitals.
